Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America

Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America, 4th Edition, by John Charles Chasteen was published in 2016. The first edition was printed in 2001. Chasteen works as an author, translator, and professor of Latin American history and culture. He teaches at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Some of his other notable works are Americanos: The Struggle for Latin American Independence, National Rhythms, African Roots: The Deep History of Latin American Popular Dance, and his translation of The Contemporary History of Latin America by the Argentine historian, Tulio Halperin Donghi. Born in Blood and Fire is intended mostly for students (college or high school), but it is also appropriate for anyone looking for a general overview of the region’s history. Even those readers with an advanced knowledge of Latin American history can benefit from the book, as Chasteen mentions in many instances anecdotes from lesser-known historical figures, many women, and discusses artists and writers who reflected the zeitgeist of their times.

Summary

The book begins with a general introduction to Latin America, stating vociferously that modern Latin America has changed drastically since the 1940s-60s: “The Latin America of 2016 is no longer your father’s version” (1). Chasteen briefly explains his initiation into Latin America during the height of the Cold War, highlighting the vast cultural and ethnic diversity of the region. He then provides a “nutshell” history of Latin America since the time of Columbus’s landing to the modern day, introducing themes he will discuss later in more detail: colonialism, political liberalism and conservatism after independence, economic turmoil, industrialization, the effects of the Cold War, and a cultural emphasis on understanding Latin American history rather than a more traditional approach.

Chapter 2 begins with what Chasteen terms, the Encounter, when Spanish and Portuguese soldiers, colonists, and missionaries began interacting with the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Yet it is not only Europeans and the Native Americas who participated in the Encounter; vast numbers of enslaved people were brought over to the Americas to work in mines, on plantations, or anywhere else cheap labor was needed, and these Africans also played an important role in the cultural and historical development of the region. Chasteen specifically compares the Spanish way of colonizing to that of the Portuguese.

In Chapter 3, Spain and Portugal reach the zenith of their colonization of Latin America. Spain’s most lucrative colonies are in Mexico and Peru (which at that time were much larger than their modern counterparts). Portugal controls Brazil, and whereas silver and gold are the most lucrative exports for Spain, Brazil produces vast quantities of sugar. Chasteen discusses how hegemony (a key term) played a vital role in Spain and Portugal’s ability to control populations far exceeding those in their home countries. Hegemony is the ability of a small ruling class to exert control over a large population by making their dominance of society appear natural and inevitable in the eyes of the population. Chasteen addresses another important term in understanding Latin American culture, transculturation, which is the interaction of two or more cultures that results in a new culture. The chapter ends with a brief outline of a handful of colonial revolts.

Chapter 4 begins the stories of independence in Latin America from their European overlords. The Spanish colonies' path to independence differed greatly from the path taken by Brazil; Cuba and Puerto Rico, however, remain colonies for a while after the rest of Spanish America became independent. Brazil transferred relatively peacefully in comparison to Spanish America and became its own empire, with strong ties to Portugal (the Brazilian emperor was Pedro I, the son of the Portuguese monarch).

Chapter 5 discusses the difficulties Latin American nations faced soon after winning independence. The social hierarchy during colonialism was a type of caste system with Europeans and Creoles at the top in the ruling class, mestizos in the middle, then Indigenous peoples, with African enslaved people making up the very bottom. This caste system remained intact after colonialism despite the revolutionary slogans of equality for all. This led to many people feeling cheated out of the triumphs of independence, which helped lead to liberalism’s failure in Spanish America and the rise of caudillo leadership. A caudillo was typically a wealthy landowner who commanded the personal loyalty of many followers. Brazil maintained a strict social hierarchy as well, and its decentralized society led to oligarchic rule.

Chapter 6 introduces the advent of industrialism, an export driven economy, and Progress in general (Chasteen capitalizes the word), which amounted to increasing freedoms for some of the lower classes. Europe and the United States began investing more and more. Mines and banana and sugar plantations became major industries. Economic Progress stimulated the desire for social Progress as well. Benito Juárez became the first president of Mexico who came from the Indigenous population. He enacted many laws that sought to weaken the grip of the military and, especially, the Catholic church. Liberalism became the political mainstay of Latin America by the end of the 19th century, and, although not everyone had benefited from Progress, overall, life had improved for many Latin Americans.

Chapter 7 addresses the advent of neocolonialism, a term identifying the fact that much of the riches and development within Latin America favored foreign investors, predominantly those from Great Britain and the United States. The United Fruit Company, for example, was owned by Americans and had a monopoly in many regions. The so-called “banana republics” of Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala sprang from this monopoly. Railroads were increasingly built in Latin America, and Indigenous people who had maintained their lands eventually lost them to development. It was around this time that many well-known Latin American artists emerged, such as Rubén Darío. Oligarchies and dictatorships emerged and further strengthened their dominance in Latin America. The Mexican general and politician Porfirio Díaz was the epitome of Latin American dictatorship. Toward the end of the 19th century, United States involvement in Latin America increased considerably.

Chapter 8 discusses the rise of nationalism in Latin America. Nationalism began to implement greater inclusion in Latin American society, emphasizing mestizo identities. Furthermore, it sought autonomy for Latin American nations, regarding foreign interests, such as those of the United States and Britain. Nationalism saw the rise of Francisco Madera in Mexico, who finally broke the grip of Díaz in Mexican politics. Also in Mexico, Diego Rivera began his great mural, The History of Mexico, which is in Mexico’s National Palace. Nationalism did not always mean revolution, however, such as in Uruguay and Argentina. During this time, indigenismo (the focus on Indigenous roots and Indigenous inclusion in society), became a dominant theme in art, culture, and politics. By the 1930s, the Great Depression in the United States was also heavily felt in Latin America. In response, Latin American economies switched to an import-substitution, industrialization (ISI) economy, which became a boon for Latin American nations until the end of World War II. Populist leaders rose in prominence during the early 20th century. Leaders like Juan Perón in Argentina and Getúlio Vargas of Brazil, whom Chasteen compares to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, focused on the needs and concerns of the poor and lower-middle class.

Chapter 9 entails the problems and successes of Latin America during the Cold War. Sentiments against the United States emerged in many areas, as Latin American nations felt specifically excluded by the Marshall plan when they needed aid as well, especially since all had bound themselves to the Allies. Some nations, like Brazil, even sent troops overseas to help fight. In 1954, the Organization of American States issued the Declaration of Caracas, which meant that any Marxist behavior in any participating nation was illegal. This fear of communism led the United States to support many dictatorships simply because the dictator followed US policy. The other choice was revolution. Cuba is the best example of a nation who chose a revolutionary path during the Cold War, though it wasn’t the only one that saw political unrest. The ISI economy floundered during the Cold War as markets reopened and the industrial might of developed nations like the US and Europe began to undermine local industrialization, which was still under-developed in comparison.

Chapter 10 continues discussing the ups and downs experienced by Latin America during the Cold War. Brazil and Argentina (among others) were dominated by the military. In the case of Argentina, this led to a brutal regime that destroyed thousands of lives. Dictatorships arose all over Latin America. The term “dirty war” emerged in the lexicon when military rule brutally fought against guerillas, which caused the governments to resort to torture and murder to combat them. Columbia specifically struggled during the Cold War era as it suffered from the violence of several groups, such as the 19th of April Movement (M-19), the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Columbia (FARC), the drug cartels (specifically Pablo Escobar’s Medellín cartel), and government forces.

Chapter 11 introduces the rise of neoliberalism in Latin America following the end of the Cold War. Neoliberals believed strongly in the free market. National debts rose to great heights in the 1990s. In 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was initiated. It brought prosperity to many but horrendous working conditions for many others. Chile is the prime example of a neoliberal government in which economic development benefited almost everyone in the country. By the end of the 1990s, however, neoliberalism was faltering, and leftist governments began to emerge, most notably the government of Hugo Chávez in Venezuela.

Latin America continues to face many challenges in the new millennium, and one of those challenges is the destruction of the Amazon rainforest. The United States as well feels the challenges of Latin America as a large influx of Latin Americans immigrate to the US, fleeing economic problems or violence in their homelands.