Ars Poetica

Ars Poetica (The Art of Poetry), a Latin poem by the Roman poet Horace, is considered a classic text on poetic form and theory. The poem provides advice to writers on the forms and subject matters that make beautiful and worthwhile verse.

Horace wrote Ars Poetica around 15 BCE as an epistle, or letter, to Lucius Calpurnius Piso and his two sons, both of whom desired to become poets. The poem is divided into 14 parts, each of which gives advice and provides illustrative examples from the classical tradition of ancient literature. Poetic themes explained in these sections include unity and harmony, authorial purpose, adherence to tradition, consistency, characterization, style and meter, dramatic theory, and poetic genius. Horace develops a theory of poetry from the perspective of a successful professional poet. Unlike some of his predecessors, like Plato and Aristotle, who produced literary theory from a philosophical perspective, Horace writes as a practicing poet.

This study guide refers to the 1863 prose translation of Ars Poetica, edited by C. Smart and Theodore Alois Buckley, available online at the Perseus Digital Library, part of the Department of Classical Studies at Tufts University.

The poem begins with the principle that poetry requires unity and harmony. Horace compares the disproportionate painting of a woman’s head on a fish’s body, saying no one could believe such an image nor could they “refrain from laughter” (Lines 1-43, Paragraph 1). So, too, must the writer compose poetry with attention to the unity of form and content. Loftier subject matter requires a higher level of diction, whereas baser topics require a more common and rougher language. Regardless of the subject matter, the form should always adhere to a “simple and uniform” expression (Lines 1-43, Paragraph 1).

He adds that the poet must know their subject matter well, otherwise the product will be incompetent. Likewise, the poet’s choice of words must be precise and conform to the content. Horace also allows for the creation of new words, albeit with an awareness of tradition and propriety.

Horace then catalogs the genres of poetry according to the subject. For example, Homer wrote epics about wars and kings. Iambic verse is best for these subjects, which require powerful emotions, actions, and dialogue. Lyrics are best for celebrations of the gods. Mournful feelings work well in elegies. He writes, “A comic subject will not be handled in tragic verse,” to emphasize the need to align content and form (Lines 73-98, Paragraph 6). This passage illustrates the concept of decorum, i.e., the use of proper vocabulary and sentence construction in poetic composition. If poets are unfamiliar with these terms and genres, Horace challenges them to learn and practice. Yet formal beauty is not enough. Poets must write verse that affects the audience emotionally and morally. In this sense, Horace insists that the finest poetry moves readers to passionate feeling and virtuous action.

Horace recommends that poets either use traditional stories or devise new ones about which only the author knows. Stock characters should be portrayed true to type. For example, Achilles should be “indefatigable, wrathful, inexorable, courageous” (Lines 99-124, Paragraph 3). Horace warns poets that writing about subjects like the Trojan War is difficult because the existing literature, such as Homer’s Iliad, is so great. If poets want to write new stories, they must maintain consistency in the plot and characters’ personalities. Horace recommends violent actions be kept offstage because audiences will not find such depictions credible.

Horace then provides specific advice to dramatists. These include the proper length of plays, the use of deus ex machina (godly interference to resolve errors in plot development), the appropriate conduct of the chorus, the utility of music, and the correct number of characters speaking onstage at one time, i.e., three at most. Horace disapproves of the deus ex machina trope because he believes that it shows a lack of attention to plot development. The language in a drama should be of common speech, both modest and simple. He then defines different types of meters, meaning the cadence and rhythm of poetry. He advocates for the metric rules followed by the Greek masters.

He says aspiring poets should study and mimic the works of the great Greek and Roman poets of the past. Horace admonishes modern poets for laziness. To become an extraordinary poet, he recommends the lifelong study of poetic works and their formal elements and writing daily. Poets can only be great if they subject themselves to discipline and years of hard work. He writes, “To have good sense, is the first principle and fountain of writing well” (Lines 309-46, Paragraph 1). The goal of poetry is to instruct or delight; ideally, poets should strive to impart both to their audiences. As such, poetry needs to be aesthetically beautiful and intellectually stimulating. The best poets achieve both effects. Poets should also practice concision and clarity about their subject matter.

Although many of Horace’s rules appear rigid and uncompromising, he concedes that minor errors in verse inevitably happen. But, he says, “when there is a great majority of beauties in a poem, I will not be offended with a few blemishes, which either inattention has dropped, or human nature has not sufficiently provided against” (Lines 347-90, Paragraph 1). Still, Horace despises mediocrity in poetry and insists that no audience will endure inferior works of art. Poets must edit, revise, and reread carefully. Horace warns that once a work of art has been sent out into the world it cannot be unsent or forgotten by the public.

Horace contemplates whether talent or effort makes the greatest poets. The best poets must have the requisite natural genius but also the discipline to refine their skills. A critical ability to judge and revise one’s work must be developed through study and training. Poets should trust reputable critics they deem worthy of sound judgment. Acceptance of flattery will only harm the poet.

Finally, Horace admits that most esteemed poets act with a strain of “madness” in their lives. This characteristic is a consequence of attaining technical perfection of craft and possessing poetic genius. Other poets and citizens in general should treat the “mad” poet with kindness and leave them alone so that they can produce great works of art.